List the advantages of recombinant insulin.

Insulin used for diabetes was earlier extracted from pancreas of slaughtered cattle and pigs. Insulin from an animal source, though caused some patients to develop allergy or other types of reactions to the foreign protein. Insulin consists of two short polypeptide chains : chain $A$ and chain $\mathrm{B}$, that are linked together by disulphide bridges. In mammals, including humans, insulin is synthesised as a pro-hormone (like a pro-enzyme, the pro-hormone also needs to be processed before it becomes a fully mature and functional hormone) which contains an extra stretch called the $C$ peptide. This $C$ peptide is not present in the mature insulin and is removed during maturation into insulin. The main challenge for production of insulin using $rDNA$ techniques was getting insulin assembled into a mature form. In $1983$, Eli Lilly an American company prepared two $DNA$ sequences corresponding to $\mathrm{A}$ and $B$, chains of human insulin and introduced them in plasmids of E. coli to produce insulin chains. Chains $A$ and $B$ were produced separately, extracted and combined by creating disulphide bonds to form human insulin.

There is no need of animals to be sacrificed. The cost of Humulin is not very high.