In $1959$ Lyttleton and Bondi suggested that the expansion of the Universe could be explained if matter carried a net charge. Suppose that the Universe is made up of hydrogen atoms with a number density $N$, which is maintained a constant. Let the charge on the proton be : 

${e_p}{\rm{ }} =  – {\rm{ }}\left( {1{\rm{ }} + {\rm{ }}y} \right)e$ where $\mathrm{e}$ is the electronic charge.

$(a)$ Find the critical value of $y$ such that expansion may start.

$(b)$ Show that the velocity of expansion is proportional to the distance from the centre.

Give reason : ''If net flux assocaited with closed surface is zero, then net charge enclosed by that surface is zero''.

A charged shell of radius $R$ carries a total charge $Q$. Given $\Phi$ as the flux of electric field through a closed cylindrical surface of height $h$, radius $r$ and with its center same as that of the shell. Here, center of the cylinder is a point on the axis of the cylinder which is equidistant from its top and bottom surfaces. Which of the following option(s) is/are correct ? $\epsilon_0$ is the permittivity of free space]

$(1)$ If $h >2 R$ and $r > R$ then $\Phi=\frac{ Q }{\epsilon_0}$

$(2)$ If $h <\frac{8 R }{5}$ and $r =\frac{3 R }{5}$ then $\Phi=0$

$(3)$ If $h >2 R$ and $r =\frac{4 K }{5}$ then $\Phi=\frac{ Q }{5 \epsilon_0}$

$(4)$ If $h >2 R$ and $r =\frac{3 K }{5}$ then $\Phi=\frac{ Q }{5 \epsilon_0}$

A charge $Q$ is placed at a distance $a/2$ above the centre of the square surface of edge $a$ as shown in the figure. The electric flux through the square surface is